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Cao Rui () (204 or 205 – 22 January 239), courtesy name Yuanzhong, was the second emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. His parentage is in dispute: his mother, Lady Zhen, was Yuan Xi's wife, but she later remarried Cao Pi, the first ruler of Wei. Based on conflicting accounts of his age, Pei Songzhi calculated that, in order to be Cao Pi's son, Cao Rui could not have been 36 (by East Asian age reckoning) when he died as recorded, so the recorded age was in error; late-Qing scholars Lu Bi (卢弼) and Mao Guangsheng (冒广生) argued instead that Cao Rui was Yuan Xi's son.
Cao Rui's reign was viewed in many different ways throughout Chinese history. He devoted many resources into building palaces and ancestral temples, and his reign saw the stalemate between his empire, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu become more entrenched. His building projects and his desire to have many concubines (who numbered in the thousands) greatly exhausted the imperial treasury.
On his deathbed, he had no biological son. He passed the throne to his adopted son Cao Fang and entrusted him to the regency of Cao Shuang and Sima Yi. This would prove to be a fatal mistake for his clan, as Cao Shuang monopolised power and governed incompetently, eventually drawing a violent reaction from Sima Yi, who overthrew him in a coup d'état (Incident at the Gaoping Tombs). Sima Yi became in control of the Wei government from February 249, eventually allowing his grandson Sima Yan to usurp the throne in February 266. After his death, Cao Rui was Posthumous name as "Emperor Ming" with the temple name "Liezu".
Because of what happened to Lady Zhen and Cao Rui's unclear origin, even though Cao Rui was the oldest of Cao Pi's sons, he was not created crown prince early in his father's reign, but was only created the Prince of Pingyuan in March 222. Sometime during his years as the Prince of Pingyuan, he married a daughter of an aristocrat, Lady Yu, as his wife and princess. He apparently had a cordial relationship with Lady Guo, who was created empress (in October 222); as she was sonless, his status as heir apparent was not seriously challenged. It is said that any thoughts that Cao Pi had at not making him heir was dissipated by a hunt; during that hunt, Cao Pi and Cao Rui had encountered a mother deer and a young deer. Cao Pi killed the mother deer with an arrow, and then ordered Cao Rui to kill the young deer. Cao Rui wept and said, "Your imperial majesty had already killed the mother, and I do not have the heart to kill the son as well." Cao Pi dropped his bow and arrows and became mournful.
In June 226, when Cao Pi became ill, he finally created Cao Rui crown prince. He died soon thereafter, and Cao Rui became emperor at the age of 21.
Throughout Cao Rui's reign, he showed great diligence in seeking out advice from multiple officials, rather than concentrating on listening to several, before making important decisions. He was generally cautious and not willing to take risks, but at the same time was, therefore, able to avoid major disasters for his empire.
During these campaigns, Cao Rui's response generally was to head to the metropolitan Chang'an—a politically important city that Wei could not afford to lose—and then commission generals to the frontlines to ward off Zhuge's attacks. This strategy had the effect of boosting the morale of the troops and shortening the communication line. Being fairly quickly updated as to the events at the frontlines, Cao Rui could also keep the central empire under his watch. Ultimately, Zhuge's campaigns were futile; after his death in 234, his plan was largely abandoned by his successors Jiang Wan and Fei Yi. However, that did not mean that there was peace on the borders with Shu Han, as nearly every year, there would be battles between the two states. However, there would be no major confrontations on the scale of Zhuge's campaigns for the rest of Cao Rui's reign.
Cao Rui's greatest military loss came in 228, when the Eastern Wu general Zhou Fang tricked Cao Rui's distant cousin and regional governor Cao Xiu into believing that he was ready to surrender his troops to Cao Wei, while instead laying a trap for Cao Xiu. Instead of realizing that it was indeed a trap, Cao Rui enthusiastically approved Cao Xiu's plan, and this led to a major military disaster, but Cao Xiu's forces were saved by Jia Kui from total annihilation.
Another serious crisis posed by Eastern Wu occurred in 234, when Eastern Wu, in a semi-coordinated effort with Shu Han, launched an attack against Cao Wei simultaneously with Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions. At the time, many frontline officials were on vacation visiting families, so Man Chong requested Cao Rui to call them back to fight Sun Quan. Cao Rui refused to cancel his subordinates' vacation, and ordered Man to focus on the defense. Cao Rui then personally led the royal army as reinforcement, and acted as an effective coordinator of the various forces that Cao Wei had on Eastern Wu's borders, and Eastern Wu was unable to make substantial gains.
In 232, Gongsun Yuan's repeated communicated with and sales of horses to Eastern Wu angered Cao Rui, who ordered his generals Tian Yu and Wang Xiong (王雄) to attack Liaodong against Jiang Ji (蔣濟)'s advice; the attacks were not successful, although Tian was able to intercept the Eastern Wu horse-buying fleet and destroy it. After the incident, although Gongsun formally maintained vassalage to Cao Wei, the relationship was damaged.
The next year saw that relationship would be somewhat improved. Gongsun, apprehensive of another attack from Cao Wei, sent ambassadors to Eastern Wu to formally submit to its emperor Sun Quan. Sun was so pleased that he immediately created Gongsun the Prince of Yan and granted him the nine bestowments, which were typically reserved for officials so powerful that the bestowments were typically viewed as a sign that the emperor was about to abdicate to them. However, Gongsun realized later that Eastern Wu would be of little help in an expedition against him. He betrayed Eastern Wu, slaughtered Sun's ambassadors as they arrived in Liaodong, and seized their troops. In response, Cao Rui created Gongsun the Duke of Lelang. (Part of the Eastern Wu troops were able to escape and eventually returned home with the assistance of Goguryeo, a rival of the Gongsuns.)
In 237, Cao Rui once again considered attacking Liaodong, angered by reports that Gongsun had repeatedly defamed him. He commissioned Guanqiu Jian to prepare for an attack, and then ordered Gongsun to come to Luoyang for an official visit. Gongsun refused and instead declared independence. Guanqiu attacked him, but was stopped by torrential rains. Gongsun then declared himself the Prince of Yan and entered into alliances with the Xianbei tribes to harass Cao Wei's borders.
The following year, Cao Rui sent Sima Yi with 40,000 men to attack Liaodong. Upon hearing this, Gongsun again requested aid from Eastern Wu. Sun, angry at Gongsun's previous betrayal, pretended to agree, but did not send Gongsun any actual help. Although Sima's expeditionary force was also initially halted by torrential rains as Guanqiu's was, Sima waited out the rains and eventually surrounded Gongsun's capital of Xiangping (襄平, in modern Liaoyang, Liaoning), starving Gongsun's troops. After nearly three months of siege, Xiangping fell, and Gongsun fled, but was captured and executed by Sima. Liaodong became part of Cao Wei's domain.
Cao Rui was also increasing his collection of women, as his concubines and ladies in waiting numbered thousands. His palace-building projects might have been with intent to house them. The contemporary historian Yu Huan recorded that in 237, Cao Rui even ordered that beautiful married women all be formally seized unless their husbands were able to ransom them, and that they would be married to soldiers instead—but that the most beautiful among them would become his concubines. Despite some officials' (including Zhang Mao's) protestations, this decree was apparently carried out, much to the distress of his people.(《魏略》曰：...太子舍人张茂以吴、蜀数动，诸将出征，而帝盛兴宫室，留意于玩饰，赐与无度，帑藏空竭；又录夺士女前已嫁为吏民妻者，还以配士，既听以生口自赎，又简选其有姿首者内之掖庭，乃上书谏曰：“臣伏见诏书，诸士女嫁非士者，一切录夺，以配战士，斯诚权时之宜，然非大化之善者也。臣请论之。陛下，天之子也，百姓吏民，亦陛下之子也。礼，赐君子小人不同日，所以殊贵贱也。吏属君子，士为小人，今夺彼以与此，亦无以异于夺兄之妻妻弟也，于父母之恩偏矣。又诏书听得以生口年纪、颜色与妻相当者自代，故富者则倾家尽产，贫者举假贷贳，贵买生口以赎其妻；县官以配士为名而实内之掖庭，其丑恶者乃出与士。得妇者未必有懽心，而失妻者必有忧色，或穷或愁，皆不得志。夫君有天下而不得万姓之懽心者，鲜不危殆。且军师在外数千万人，一日之费非徒千金，举天下之赋以奉此役，犹将不给，况复有宫庭非员无录之女，椒房母后之家赏赐横兴，内外交引，其费半军。昔汉武帝好神仙，信方士，掘地为海，封土为山，赖是时天下为一，莫敢与争者耳。自衰乱以来，四五十载，马不舍鞍，士不释甲，每一交战，血流丹野，创痍号痛之声于今未已。犹彊寇在疆，图危魏室。陛下不兢兢业业，念崇节约，思所以安天下者，而乃奢靡是务，中尚方纯作玩弄之物，炫燿后园，建承露之盘，斯诚快耳目之观，然亦足以骋寇仇之心矣。惜乎，舍尧舜之节俭，而为汉武之侈事，臣窃为陛下不取也。愿陛下沛然下诏，万几之事有无益而有损者悉除去之，以所除无益之费，厚赐将士父母妻子之饥寒者，问民所疾而除其所恶，实仓廪，缮甲兵，恪恭以临天下。如是，吴贼面缚，蜀虏舆榇，不待诛而自服，太平之路可计日而待也。陛下可无劳神思于海表，军师高枕，战士备员。今群公皆结舌，而臣所以不敢不献瞽言者，臣昔上要言，散骑奏臣书，以听谏篇为善，诏曰：‘是也’，擢臣为太子舍人；且臣作书讥为人臣不能谏诤，今有可谏之事而臣不谏，此为作书虚妄而不能言也。臣年五十，常恐至死无以报国，是以投躯没身，冒昧以闻，惟陛下裁察。”书通，上顾左右曰：“张茂恃乡里故也。”以事付散骑而已。茂字彦林，沛人。) Weilǜe annotation in Sanguozhi, vol.03.
Despite his collection of women, however, Cao Rui was without any son who survived infancy. He adopted two sons to be his own—Cao Fang and Cao Xun, whom he created princes on 23 September 235.(青龙三年八月庚午，立皇子芳为齐王，询为秦王。) Sanguozhi, vol.03 (It is usually accepted that they were sons of his cousins, although the exact parentage is not clear.) In June or July 237, Cao Rui took the unprecedented (and unrepeated in Chinese history) action of setting his own temple name of Liezu, while setting the temple names of Cao Cao and Cao Pi. He also ordered that the temples of Cao Cao, Cao Pi and himself were not to be torn down in the future.(有司奏：武皇帝拨乱反正，为魏太祖，乐用武始之舞。文皇帝应天受命，为魏高祖，乐用咸熙之舞。帝制作兴治，为魏烈祖，乐用章武之舞。三祖之庙万世不毁，其馀四庙亲尽迭毁，如周后稷、文、武庙祧之制。〈孙盛曰：夫谥以表行，庙以存容，皆于既没然后著焉，所以原始要终，以示百世也。未有当年而逆制祖宗，未终而豫自尊显。昔华乐以厚敛致讥，周人以豫凶违礼，魏之群司，于是乎失正。>) Sanguozhi, vol.03, with Sun Sheng's annotation. According to the chronology of Cao Rui's biography, this event took place in the 1st year of the Qing'long era, between the ding'wei day of the 6th month (21 June) and the dingmao day of the 7th month (11 July). Sun Sheng criticized Wei officials for not discouraging Cao Rui regarding this setting of temple name while an emperor was still alive. (Based on Confucian regulations, except for the founder of the dynasty, rulers' temples would be destroyed after six generations.) He carried out these actions apparently in apprehension that he would be given an unflattering temple name (or none at all) and that his temple would eventually be destroyed, due to his lack of biological issue and unclear origin.
By 237, Cao Rui's favorite was no longer Empress Mao, but Consort Guo. In September that year, when Cao Rui was attending a feast hosted by Consort Guo, Consort Guo requested that Empress Mao be invited to join as well, but Cao Rui refused and further ordered that no news about the feast is to be given to Empress Mao. However, the news leaked, and Empress Mao talked about the feast with him anyway. He became exceedingly angry, and killed a number of his attendants whom he suspected of leaking the news to Empress Mao, and, inexplicably, ordered Empress Mao to commit suicide, even though she was still buried with honors due an empress, and her family remained honored.
On 31 December 238, Cao Rui grew ill.(景初二年十二月乙丑，帝寝疾不豫。) Sanguozhi, vol.03 He created Consort Guo empress on 16 January 239(景初二年十二月辛巳，立皇后。) Sanguozhi, vol.03 in preparation of allowing her to become empress dowager after his death. He initially wanted to entrust his adopted son, Cao Fang the Prince of Qi, to his uncle Cao Yu, to serve as the lead regent, along with Xiahou Xian (夏侯獻), Cao Shuang, Cao Zhao (曹肇), and Qin Lang (秦朗). However, his trusted officials Liu Fang (劉放) and Sun Zi (孫資) were unfriendly with Xiahou and Cao Zhao and were apprehensive about their becoming regents, and managed to persuade him to make Cao Shuang (with whom they were friendly) and Sima Yi regents instead. Cao Yu, Cao Zhao, and Qin were excluded from the regency. On 22 January 239, Cao Rui created the seven-year-old Cao Fang crown prince, and died that same day. Cao Fang succeeded him as emperor. On 17 February, Cao Rui was buried at Gaoping Tombs.(景初三年春正月癸丑，葬高平陵。) Sanguozhi, vol.03
On 3 August 229, Cao Teng was posthumously honoured as "Emperor Gao of Wei" (魏高帝),（太和三年六月戊申，追尊高祖大长秋曰高皇帝，夫人吴氏曰高皇后。） Sanguozhi, vol.03. Vol.72 of Tongdian recorded discussions regarding this. becoming the only eunuch in Chinese officialdom to have this honor.
When Cao Rui's daughter Cao Shu (曹淑) died in infancy (less than one month old) on 15 February 232,Cao Shu's name was recorded as Tai in Tang Kaiyuan Zhanjing (魏太和六年正月甲戌, 皇女泰薨.上及羣臣皆為之服.) Tang Kaiyuan Zhanjing, vol.13 Cao Rui insisted in joining the funeral procession. Yang Fu noted that he did not do so during the funerals of Cao Pi and Empress Dowager Bian, and advised him not to join in the funeral procession. Cao Rui ignored Yang's advice.(帝爱女淑，未期而夭，帝痛之甚，追封平原公主，立庙洛阳，葬于南陵。将自临送，阜上疏曰：“文皇帝、武宣皇后崩，陛下皆不送葬，所以重社稷、备不虞也。何至孩抱之赤子而可送葬也哉？”帝不从。) Sanguozhi, vol.25 Cao Rui also insisted that the funeral rites used be those for an adult woman and that court officials were to don mourning clothing; Chen Qun wrote a formal submission to advise the emperor. Cao Rui ignored the advice.(后皇女淑薨，追封谥平原懿公主。群上疏曰：长短有命，存亡有分。故圣人制礼，或抑或致，以求厥中。防墓有不修之俭，嬴、博有不归之魂。夫大人动合天地，垂之无穷，又大德不逾闲，动为师表故也。八岁下殇，礼所不备，况未期月，而以成人礼送之，加为制服，举朝素衣，朝夕哭临，自古已来，未有此比。而乃复自往视陵，亲临祖载。原陛下抑割无益有损之事，但悉听群臣送葬，乞车驾不行，此万国之至望也。闻车驾欲幸摩陂，实到许昌，二宫上下，皆悉俱东，举朝大小，莫不惊怪。或言欲以避衰，或言欲于便处移殿舍，或不知何故。臣以为吉凶有命，祸福由人，移徙求安，则亦无益。若必当移避，缮治金墉城西宫，及孟津别宫，皆可权时分止。可无举宫暴露野次，废损盛节蚕农之要。又贼地闻之，以为大衰。加所烦费，不可计量。且（由）吉士贤人，当盛衰，处安危，秉道信命，非徙其家以宁，乡邑从其风化，无恐惧之心。况乃帝王万国之主，静则天下安，动则天下扰；行止动静，岂可轻脱哉？帝不听。 ) Sanguozhi, vol.22 Afterwards, besides bestowing upon Cao Shu the posthumous title of "Princess Yi of Pingyuan", Cao Rui ordered that a temple be raised for her. A deceased grandson of his mother Lady Zhen's brother, Zhen Huang (甄黄), was also buried with Cao Shu and was posthumously made a marquis. A male relative of Empress Mingyuan, Guo De (郭德), was declared to be the deceased couple's child; his surname was changed to "Zhen" and he was made Marquis of Pingyuan, inheriting the princess's title.Sun Sheng criticized Cao Rui's behaviour regarding the erection of the temple and improper bestowing of titles to Guo De. While he noted Chen Qun's and Yang Fu's dissenting advice, he argued that they should have gone further in stopping the emperor. (太和六年，明帝愛女淑薨，追封諡淑為平原懿公主，為之立廟。取后亡从孙黄与合葬，追封黄列侯，以夫人郭氏从弟德为之后，承甄氏姓，封德为平原侯，袭公主爵〈孙盛曰：于礼，妇人既无封爵之典，况于孩末，而可建以大邑乎？德自异族，援继非类，匪功匪亲，而袭母爵，违情背典，于此为甚。陈群虽抗言，杨阜引事比并，然皆不能极陈先王之礼，明封建继嗣之义，忠至之辞，犹有阙乎！诗云：“赫赫师尹，民具尔瞻。”宰辅之职，其可略哉！) Sanguozhi, vol.05, with Sun Sheng's annotation.
After Cao Rui's death, his successor Cao Fang reverted the changes, and the jian'yin month (the 1st month) once again became the zheng month, and thus the start of a new year.(景初三年十二月，诏曰：“烈祖明皇帝以正月弃背天下，臣子永惟忌日之哀，其复用夏正；虽违先帝通三统之义，斯亦礼制所由变改也。又夏正于数为得天正，其以建寅之月为正始元年正月，以建丑月为后十二月。”), Sanguozhi, vol.4. Note that this calendar change is not part of the "leap month" system used in traditional Chinese calendars. Due to this revert, the 3rd year of the Jing'chu era had 13 months in total (corresponding to 22 Jan 239 to 09 Feb 240 in the Julian calendar) and two 12th months. The month where Cao Fang proclaimed this change was the "first" 12th month and corresponds to 13 Dec 239 to 11 Jan 240 in the Julian calendar.
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